LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

  Current Issues in Teacher Professional Development

         Professional development (PD) issues involve change.    Consequently, the task of an effective PD program involves promoting and supporting individual growth.  Central to this task is the individual's ability to adapt and reflect. This task requires time.  Time to learn new methods; time to reflect on one's practice.  For many teachers, finding time for professional learning activities is a challenge.  In this sense, time or the misuse of time is a barrier to change. 

     Since teachers tend to teach as they were taught, resistance is another barrier to change.  The resistance of 3.1 million full-time teachers to break from tradition and adapt new methods represents an obstacle for reform and a challenge for professional development programs. 

  Computer-based Learning Tools

     This challenge may be assisted by computer-based learning tools.   Effective PD tools using multimedia have been used in areas like avionics, medicine, and business for over a decade.  Multimedia technology is currently showing promise in education.  Multimedia programs have the potential to break the time barrier by offering on-demand learning activities and to break the resistance barrier by modeling innovative teaching methods.  An important program component that contributes to multimedia's effectiveness is the interface.  The purpose of an interface is to aid the learner's interaction with the information, the computer-based program itself, and the overall learning experience.

   Organization of Paper

     The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of an interface on the learning and attitudes of elementary teachers.  To accomplish this task, related literature from three areas was reviewed: (a)  professional development, (b)  multimedia research, and (c) human-computer interaction.  Identifying effective interfaces is a critical step toward the development of computer-based professional development activities and the support of reform-based activities.  The results of this study help instructional designers understand the notion of interaction as it relates to professional development and the system support needs of elementary teachers.

Professional Development of Teachers

Barriers

     In 1991, the National Education Commission on Time and Learning (NECTL), created for the expressed purpose of investigating the relationship between time and learning, was formed.  This commission reported their results in a 1994 publication entitled Prisoners of Time.  This document identified false beliefs underlying design flaws in the education system.  One of these false beliefs is that "schools can be transformed without giving teachers the time they need to retool themselves and reorganize their work" (National Education Commission on Time and Learning, 1994).

     A supplemental report conducted by Cheryl Kane (1994) extended the NECTL research by summarizing research findings about teachers' need for additional time and discussing critical factors relative to the provision of this additional time.  The need for additional time corresponds to the additional demands placed upon teachers.  These demands include aligning practice with national standards (i.e. the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Professional Teaching Standards), teaching students with exceptional needs that teachers have no experience with or training in, and participating in school management issues.  

    Kilpatrick (1992) reported that teachers express concern about the lack of adequate inservice time to learn new strategies. Researchers do not know how much time is needed by teachers to learn and implement new teaching strategies.  However, Purnell and Hill (1992) wrote a publication entitled Time for Reform, where they report several estimates of time requirements. The authors estimated that "To learn a moderately difficult teaching strategy could require that teachers receive 20 to 30 hours of instruction in its theory, 15 to 20 classroom demonstrations, and 10 to 15 coaching sessions before mastering the technique and incorporating it into routine classroom practice."  A total of 65 hours far exceeds the current inservice programs.

     Another barrier concerns resistance.  Teacher beliefs are the antecedents and determinants of acceptance.   The underlying assumption of the reflective process, which includes beliefs about the nature of learning, knowledge of one's own thought processes, and knowing how to use that knowledge (Schoenfeld, 1989), affects cognition.   Schoenfeld (1985) suggested "that belief systems shape cognition, even when one is not consciously aware of holding those beliefs."  So, as a rule teachers practice what they think works best based on direct experience.  Changing existing beliefs coupled with the constraint of time yields a formidable challenge for professional development programs.

Current Views

     Currently, no consensus in respect to best practices exists.  However, in 1995, the Standards for Staff Development were written by the National Staff Development Council and the National Association of Elementary School Principals.  This publication identified five characteristics of productive professional development programs: (a) situated in school context and school-based efforts, (b) participation of teachers as planners, (c) choice of learning activities by teachers, (d) utilization of ample demonstration, supervised practice, and feedback, and (e) sustained practice and support.

     Some researchers view professional development as an autonomous activity (similar to "c" above) selected by the teacher (Castle & Aichele, 1994).  This viewpoint is represented as one of the five models of effective staff development (National Staff Development Council, 1995) entitled Individually-guided Staff Development.  Based on adult learning theory, this model assumes that adults learn best when they have control of their own learning goals and tasks (Jones, Lubinski, Swafford, & Thorton, 1994).  Although autonomy is valued, many researchers view support as an essential element of PD programs (Clarke, 1994; Merseth, 1990; Bull, Harris, Lloyd, & Short, 1989).  Support can take on many forms from peer coaching to computer-based tools.

     Teachers assuming responsibility for their own professional development represents a new direction in PD.  Continuing education units (CEUs) is not new to PD, but the opportunity to earn CEUs using multimedia PD tools does in fact represent an emerging approach to PD.  A change in the current delivery method of PD has been addressed not only by the National Staff Development Council (1995) but by individual researchers as well.  One such individual, Julian Weissglass, articulated his view as follows:

 It is widely acknowledged that the vision of the mathematics classroom presented by the NCTM's two Standards documents is radically different from current practice and that implementing this vision will require considerable re-education of current teachers.  Although adequate implementation will require policy and structural changes, the nature of the professional development in which teachers participate will largely determine the extent of the change in students' classroom experiences.  The failure of past reform efforts to achieve sustainable change indicates that a significant departure from traditional professional development is needed. (1994, p.67)

     The need to depart from traditional PD approaches while addressing the barriers to change provide challenging issues for the designer of computer-based PD tools.  Developing PD tools is a recent application of multimedia technology, so research has not explored the instructional design issues related to the professional growth of teachers.  Designers must look to the existing multimedia research for direction.

Interactive Multimedia Research

Definition

     According to Liu, Ayersman, and Reed (1995) interactive multimedia is also known as hypermedia.  Hypermedia refers to a nonlinear, associative information system designed around a network of linked multimedia resources (Heller, 1990; Jonassen, 1989).  Multimedia, although its documented use goes back to the 1950s (Ely, 1963), defined by Heinich, Molenda, and Russell (1993) is the "sequential or simultaneous use of a variety of media formats in a given presentation or self-study program" (p. 447) and a multimedia system is "a combination of audio and visual media integrated into a structured, systematic presentation" (p. 447).

     According to Burton, Moore and Holmes (1995), hypermedia is considered the broader term, and multimedia is viewed as a constrained hypermedia program. For the purposes of this study, interactive multimedia and hypermedia, as it is in most of the research literature, are synonymous terms.

 Assumptions

     Hypermedia is believed to accommodate different learning styles because of its multimodal attributes. Presenting information using more than one modality at the same time forms the basis for the assumption that multimedia presentations are more effective than presentations using only one modality (Mayes, 1992).  Learner-control and the nonlinear nature of hypermedia support individual knowledge construction especially in the area of problem-solving tasks.

Research on Multimedia Learning

     In 1993, Ragan, Boyce, Redwine, Savenye, and McMichael reviewed seven literature reviews that covered 139 studies.  The authors found that multimedia is (a) as effective as traditional instruction and (b) more efficient in respect to learning time.  With a few exceptions, multimedia lacks an adequate research base (Moore, Myers, & Burton, 1994). According to Burton, Moore, and Holmes (1995), only the Ragan et al. (1993), the meta-analysis of 60 studies by McNeil and Nelson (1991), and the work of Strommen & Revelle (1990) have made useful contributions to the knowledge base on multimedia.  Burton et al. (1995) state that the knowledge base lacks research on the interactive features of multimedia.  Moreover, although many researchers accept hypermedia's potential to address learner variability, research fails to support this claim (Ayersman & von Minden, 1995).

Cognitive Styles

     Since the potential of hypermedia lies with its ability to accommodate different learning styles, many studies investigate the relationship between hypermedia and learning styles.  Witkin's cognitive style construct of field-dependence/independence is one of the most extensively used.  Witkin (1977) has described field dependence (FD)/independence (FI) as bipolar and value-neutral.  This construct has in many cases been found to directly affect learning.

     Liu & Reed (1994) investigated FD and FI people's learning strategies within a hypermedia setting.  63 international students awaiting formal college admission participated in their study.  Both FI and FD groups significantly improved their performance from pretest to posttest.  Although both groups used different paths, tools, and strategies, they both learned at comparable levels.  The authors concluded that hypermedia does have the potential to accommodate different learning styles.

    Leader & Klein (1994) used a similar audience to study the effects of different search tool types and learner cognitive styles.  This study, unlike Liu and Reed's, varied the treatment for the FI and FD groups, which limited the learner's options.  Achievement in this study was measured by performance using different search tools.

     Since cognitive style resulted in a significant difference in search tool performance, the researchers would have extended the usefulness of the results if they had included a measure of content learning.  This measure would have established a commonality with other studies and allowed the results to be included in the body of research on individual differences and hypermedia.  As it stands, this study weakly contributes to hypermedia research by calling for additional studies to explore their implications (incorporate more than one type of search tool).

Domain Knowledge

     Lawless and Kulikowich (1996) conducted a quantitative study to investigate what performance profiles emerge based on an individual's navigation choices, and what measures of external criteria (domain knowledge and high interest) affect differences among these navigational performance profiles.  Their pre-experimental study design used cluster analysis as a statistical data analysis tool.

     Their findings supported their hypothesis that navigational strategies are critical for learners to effectively process hypermedia-based material.  Learners categorized as "feature explorers" were found to invest more time in exploring, which resulted in a moderate performance compared to the other two navigational profiles, "knowledge seekers" and "apathetic hypertext users." Domain knowledge was found to differentiate navigational ability.

Structured Experience

     Armel & Shrock (1996) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness and efficiency of a note taking instructional strategy.  The treatment group required to take notes using an electronic journal scored significantly higher than the control group and took significantly longer to complete the instructional program.  These results may indicate a need to reconceptualize the process of computer-based note taking.  This instructional strategy may need to become a more integral component of the program rather than an ancillary one.

     Beasley & Waugh (1996) sought to determine the effects of hypermedia content-structure focusing on structural knowledge acquisition, retention, and disorientation.  Content-structure focusing was defined as a type of learning objective independent of program tools like a concept map, which is a physically implemented mechanism. Focusing learner's attention on content structure decreased disorientation and increased knowledge acquisition.

     Both of these studies tend to warrant a closer look at determining when to impose structure and when to allow full learner control.   [insert summary of LC]

Human-computer Interactions

    The interaction between a user and the computer is an important variable of learning with computer-based tools. The design of the interface that supports this interaction is critical.  The communicative purpose of this interaction is to complete a task.  In other words, the interface represents the "vehicle" navigated by the learner to access the information.  No ideal interface exists; however, certain combinations of interface features may be more effective with certain types of tasks. Although, the need to identify effective design features that support interaction and learning tasks seems obvious, few empirical studies have explored this important instructional variable (Milheim, 1995).

Learning Issues 

Cognitive Effort (Efficiency)

     Tom Cobb (1997) in an article entitled Cognitive Efficiency: Toward a Revised Theory of Media.  Cobb contends that since any number of media can delivery instruction, media choices are basically about cost and efficiency.  He posits that one type of efficiency is cognitive efficiency; therefore, media choices at certain times do involve learning, and media choices can be guided by an understanding of cognitive processes. 

     Cognitive efficiency is a measure of the amount of mental effort required outside of working memory by a symbol system.  Cobb contends, that although no learning theory exists on which to base a media theory, junction points exist by which media research can align itself to contemporary cognitive research.  His points include: (a) different representational forms of identical information affect how that information is processed; (b) although more than one media may be chosen for instruction, they do not perform at the same level of efficiency; and (c) it is no longer necessary for media researchers to rely solely on qualitative approaches.  Hypotheses need to be empirically validated.  He concludes by stating that media researchers should not shy away from comparative studies on variables like ease, speed, and effectiveness of learning. 

     A related variable, cognitive overhead refers to the information processing capacity which effects the allocation of effort normally devoted to content diverted to dealing with accessing information.

Navigational Effort 

     Milheim (1995) in an exploratory study investigated the nature of existing relationships among dependent and independent variables.  Dependent variables were (a) number of text fields used to input information, (b) number of repeated screens, (c) number of skipped screens, (d) number of mastered topics, and (e) time spent in each section.  Independent variables were (a) sex, (b) age, (c) undergraduate gpa, (d) test score on graduate records examination, (e) previous teaching experience, and (f) computer-related experience.

     The author found significant results between number of repeated screens and age.  Older students, 35-39, tended to repeat screens more frequently than other age groups.  Another significant result occurred between skipping screens and grade point average.  Students with lower grade point averages tended to skip screens more frequently than other levels of grade point averages.  Because of the exploratory design, results are not conclusive, but the study does generate interest in conducting empirical research using student interaction factors.

     Schroeder and Grabowski (1995) used 113 undergraduate students to investigate how learners use different types of graphical browsers in a learner-controlled hypertext system to construct knowledge.  Their quasi-experimental study found that novice media users use a passive navigational strategy based more on location of items than deliberate choices.  Many experienced confusion on determining if they had seen everything.  This feeling of being lost confounded their ability to develop a navigational strategy.  The authors suggest that hypermedia learners need instruction or practice in using this type of computer-based learning tool in order to evolve their learning strategies and to exploit the advantages offered by high learner controlled environments.

  Attitude Issues

Technology Acceptance 

     Ayersman (1996) stated that learners for the most part express positive attitudes toward the use of hypermedia.  Kizzier, Ford, & Pollard (1994) found that teacher trainers held more positive attitudes toward multimedia than either CAI or video instruction.

     Reed, Ayersman, & Liu (1995a, 1995b) investigated factors that affected the attitudes of preservice and inservice teachers.  Their study found that the use of hypermedia instruction to teach the instructional applications of hypermedia significantly affected teachers' attitudes toward hypermedia.  [insert TAM]

Measuring Interface Effects

Usability 

     The design of an interface supports certain kinds of interactions.  Asking questions related to the usability of the interface identifies whether or not the interface supports the user's learning process.  Nielsen (1989) contends that usability may be measured using five parameters: (a) easy to learn, (b) efficient to use, (c) easy to remember, (d) few errors, and (e) pleasant to use. 

     Easy to learn--a function of time and productivity 

• How quickly can a learner get some work done? 
• Learning curve-- walk-up-and-use
• Able to navigate and locate queried information
• Able to browse starting with first screen
• Able to learn how information is structured and organized and where to locate specific information 
• Able to learn something without being an expert user
• Able to comprehend content 
• Able to read text

     Efficient to use--also a function of time and productivity

• Able to find a certain piece of information or determine that  it is not available
• Able to quickly orient to new node
• Able to understand the meaning of the node relative to the previous one
• Able to learn most relevant facts or concepts for individual's purpose without going through more than needed either  irrelevant material or material they already know 

     Easy to remember is function of intuitive interface design and ease of use. 

• Able to use system after an absence without having to learn system again
• Users can transfer their knowledge of the use and navigation of one program to the use of another with the same engine. 

     Few errors is a function of intuitive interface design and ease of use.  

• Do not make errors while using the system
• Relates to errors committed by learner
• Rarely follow a link only to discover they didn't want to go there
• If the above happens, they can easily return to previous location 

     Pleasant to use is a function of ease of use. 

• Subjectively satisfied
• Prefer to use this type of system to alternative solutions such as paper or video
• Rarely frustrated or disappointed about the result of a link
• Feel in control and can move freely without feeling constrained by the system
• Find the experience enriching 

  Usability Measurement

    Several methods exist for evaluating how well a given user interface scores on each of the primary usability parameters.  Learnability is a useful method. Nielsen (1989) defines learnability  ". . .  as the ability of the user to quickly get some useful work done with the system."  Typically this method of measurement takes a group of novice users and measures the time it takes them to learn the system. Usually, time to reach a predetermined level of skill is measured by the time to complete a task.

     For this study, learning effects will be measured by the learner's task performance and attitude effects measured by the learner's perceived ease of use and usefulness.

Summary

     Despite the widespread assumption that interactive multimedia is effective very little evidence supports this. [more] Two design challenges that represent learning obstacles are disorientation and cognitive overhead or overload.  Additionally, very few studies report on the application of IMM in a teacher professional development setting.  To contribute to the IMM knowledge base, this study analyses the human-computer interaction from a usability perspective.

     The goal of this study is to gain an understanding of teachers' interaction with IMM and how an interface supports learning and influences attitude toward learning with computer-based tools in a professional development setting.  The two main aims are to (a)  analyze the interaction of individual abilities (cognitive style and domain knowledge) with two different presentational interfaces in the acquisition of a mathematics methods knowledge domain and (b) understand the navigational strategies used in accessing structured information.

     The question guiding the design of this study is: 

Does using a browser-style GUI result in significant improvements in  learnability and working efficiency? 

   It was hypothesized that 

• GUItwo group will significantly score more positively than GUIone  group on program and computer use attitude measures, and 
• GUItwo group will score significantly higher on knowledge acquisition when prior knowledge is statistically controlled than GUIone group.

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